cultural bias in psychological assessment

Discrimination, social support, and psychological distress among Asian Americans, Therapist as subject: A review of the empirical countertransference literature. Cultural Bias in Testing: Examples & Definition - Study.com This is referred to as differential predictive validity. Describe the results of research on bias in prediction and in relation to variables that are external to the test. London: Taylor & Francis An excellent overview of the theory and applications of IRT. For example, in terms of clinical diagnosis, the Cultural Formulation approach in DSM-5 represents the current major framework for conducting diagnosis with culturally diverse patients. In PASE v. Hannon (PASE being an abbreviation for Parents in Action on Special Education), a similar case to Larry P. was brought against the Chicago public schools. PubMedGoogle Scholar, Reynolds, C.R., Altmann, R.A., Allen, D.N. (1975). Anxiety is not named specifically as the culprit by many stereotype threat researchers, but it seems the most likely moderator of the proclaimed effect. In this context we interpret the tests as the messengersthe Gould approach is the kill the messenger approach and does not lead to solutions; rather, it leads to ignorance. However, subsequent research found little or no support for the hypothesis that early interventions could result in lasting changes in IQ or achievement.). Abstract. Because mental tests are based largely on middle-class values and knowledge, their results are more valid for those groups and will be biased against other groups to the extent that they deviate from those values and knowledge bases. Alley, G., & Foster, C. (1978). This paper explores and discuses: (1)the taxonomy of bias and equivalence in psychological testing, (2) identifies issues surrounding test bias, (3)explain sources of bias (4) evaluate how culture influences psychological assessment of diverse groups and last but not the least, (5) examine the inference of bias controversy and recommend various . Various explanations are offered for these differences including the idea that IQ tests are inherently biased against Blacks, Hispanics, and possibly other ethnics groups, or what is commonly known as the Cultural Test Bias Hypothesis (CTBH). For example, in terms of clinical diagnosis, the Cultural Formulation approach in DSM-5 represents the current major framework for conducting diagnosis with culturally diverse patients. American Psychologist, 30, 1541. Updated: 05/02/2022 Table of. Fairness Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. One advantage of the partial correlation in such studies is that it can be used successfully with much smaller sample sizes than the ICC and most other techniques. Yet, from the standpoint of the traditional practical applications of aptitude and intelligence tests in forecasting probabilities of future performance levels, prediction is the most crucial use of test scores to examine. (1996) frame it this way: Group means have no direct implications for individuals. of your Kindle email address below. Continued sensitivity by test developers to issues of bias is also necessary so that appropriate checks for bias are performed prior to test publication. Educational psychologists conduct research that assesses outcomes in learning environments using standardized tests in order to determine what methods and environments for learning are the most successful. The scoring of the items is improper, unfairly penalizing the minority child because the test author has a Caucasian middle-class orientation that is reflected in the scoring criterion. These tests appear to be reasonably unbiased for the groups investigated, and mean score differences do not appear to be an artifact of test bias (Reynolds & Ramsay, 2003). Nevertheless, certain standardized tests have not been examined for the presence of content bias, and research with these tests should continue regarding potential content bias with different ethnic groups (Reynolds & Ramsay, 2003). Test bias in the assessment of intelligence and personality. Nisbett, R. E. (2009). The three parameters in the three-parameter (3P) model are (a) discrimination power of the item, or slope of the ICC, (b) item difficulty, located at the point on the difficulty level of the latent trait at which the examinee has a 50% chance of correctly answering the item, and (c) guessing parameter. Today, we know a great deal about the problems of bias in psychological tests and assessments. 306, 1972; 495 F. Supp. ), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. Mean differences between ethnic groups are not limited to Black-White comparisons. These challenges include the evaluation of cultural validity and measurement invariance of our psychological tests and measures. The evaluation of bias in prediction under the Cleary et al. The DSM-IV diagnoses an individual on five axes in order to encompass the individual's entire mental health experience. In direct response to the ABPsi call, the American Psychological Associations (APA) Board of Directors requested its Board of Scientific Affairs to appoint a group to study the use of psychological and educational tests with disadvantaged students. Bias in mental testing. Thus, unfortunately, the question of bias must eventually be answered on a virtually test-by-test basis. Example of Cultural Bias. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive. The most frequently stated problems fall into one of the following categories (Reynolds, 2000; Reynolds et al., 1999; Reynolds & Ramsay, 2003). Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11, 235294. As a result of inappropriate content, the tests are unsuitable for use with minority children. Rapid access and use of verbal and other information in long-term memory, Verbal fluency, synonym generation, associative memory, spelling, anagrams, Matching and coding tasks, pegboard, mirror tracing, Transformations of visual working memory, moving objects, and aiming, Mental rotations, dynamic spatiotemporal tasks, accuracy in throwing, General knowledge, mathematics, science, and geography, Proportional, mechanical, and scientific reasoning; SAT Math and GRE Quantitative. A review of the literature, Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice, Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice, Psychiatric symptom dimensions among Asian Americans and Native Hawaiians: An analysis of the symptom checklist, Cross-cultural perspectives on personality, A sixth personality domain that is independent of the big five domains: The psychometric properties of the HEXACO personality inventory in a Japanese sample, Psychiatric diagnosis across cultural boundaries, Ethnicity/race, paranoia, and psychiatric diagnoses: Clinical bias versus sociocultural differences, Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, Effects of cultural themes in psychotic symptoms on the diagnosis of schizophrenia in African Americans, Clinical work with limited English proficiency clients: A phenomenological study, Monocultural and cross-cultural indigenous approaches: The royal road to the development of a balanced global psychology, www.multiculturalmentalhealth.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/2013_DSM5_CFI.pdf, www.multiculturalmentalhealth.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/CFI-Cultural-Identity.pdf, www.apa.org/about/policy/multicultural-guidelines.pdf, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2008.04.003, https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.38.4.363, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X, https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2010.488049, www.intestcom.org/files/guideline_test_adaptation_2ed.pdf, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2009.03.007, https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.113.3.428, https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2018.37.9.659, www.apa.org/international/pi/2013/12/reflections.aspx, https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6402_12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2008.03.003, Find out more about saving to your Kindle, Book: The Cambridge Handbook of Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis, Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108235433.003. Culture and background may lead to the inaccuracy of assessments, including traditional tests and alternative assessments. Herrnstein, R. J. Cultural bias - Wikipedia Jensen, A. R. (1980). This method essentially holds the total score constant across the groups, and the resulting differences may be used to identify problematic items if it is significant and particularly if meaningful. New York, NY: Academic Press. Take for example the legal response to the question Are intelligence tests used to diagnose intellectual disability biased against cultural and ethnic minorities? In California in 1979 (Larry P. v. Riles) the answer was yes but in Illinois, in 1980 (PASE v. Hannon), the response was no. Thus two federal district courts of equivalent standing have heard nearly identical cases, with many of the same witnesses espousing much the same testimony, and reached precisely opposite conclusions. First, the group of items must be unidimensional; that is, they must all be measuring the same factor or dimension of aptitude or personality. Standards for educational and psychological testing. ), The handbook of school psychology (pp. Bias in the content The Problem of Bias in Psychological Assessment. Almost without exception, those studies have produced results that can be adequately depicted by Fig. Williams, R. L. (1970). Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, The Problem of Bias in Psychological Assessment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59455-8_15, Source: This table was adapted from Halpern (. Figure 15.2 demonstrates this DIF gap across two hypothetical groups. Studies investigating bias in the prediction of future school performance based on IQ tests for children have covered a variety of populations including normal as well as referred children; high-poverty, inner-city children; rural Black; and Native American groups. hasContentIssue false, The Cambridge Handbook of Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis, Introduction to the Handbook of Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis, General Issues in Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis, Psychometrics and Psychological Assessment, Multicultural Issues in Clinical Psychological Assessment, Ethical and Professional Issues in Assessment, Assessment of Noncredible Reporting and Responding, Technological Advances in Clinical Assessment, Writing a Psychological Report Using Evidence-Based Psychological Assessment Methods, Assessment and Diagnosis of Specific Mental Disorders, Part I - General Issues in Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108235433.003, Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. Up to this point, we have directly or indirectly infused the notion of fairness throughout this book, whether it be in the context of: Interpreting test scores, e.g., use norm or criterion-referenced interpretations, Minimizing error in test scores, e.g., follow standardized procedures for all examinees, Reducing threats to validity of score interpretations, e.g., provide appropriate accommodations to those with disabilities, Writing appropriate test items, e.g., conduct expert review to ensure cultural sensitivity and design to measure intended construct across a wide range of test-taker ability, Evaluating potential of job candidates, e.g., use same standard criteria for all applicants, Disability evaluation, e.g., establish diagnosis of intellectual disability using best assessment procedures. From Alfred Binet in the 1800s to Arthur Jensen over the last 50years, many scientists have addressed this controversial problem, with varying, inconsistent outcomes. Integrated medical and primary care, online assessment and scoring, and global initiatives are examples of these new areas. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Reynolds, C. R. (1998). William H Batchelder. Both the degree of error in prediction and the direction of the bias will vary as a function of level of performance on the independent variable. Sandoval, J., & Mille, M. P. W. (1979). Bias in psychological assessment: An empirical review and recommendations. Journal of Special Education, 17, 241260. As stated in the Standards (AERA et al., 2014): Certainly, most testing professionals agree that group differences in testing outcomes should trigger heightened scrutiny for possible sources of test bias However, group differences in outcomes do not in themselves indicate that a testing application is biased or unfair. As an example, if an achievement test produces different mean scores for different ethnic groups, and there actually are true differences between the groups in terms of achievement, the test is not biased. In T. B. Gutkin & C. R. Reynolds (Eds. Accuracy judgments of WISC-R item difficulty for minority groups. Why is psychometric research on bias in mental testing so often ignored? Items that indicate DIF or test scores that indicate DTF can lead to predictive bias, which is found when differences exist in the pattern of associations between test scores and other variables for different groups, causing concerns about bias in the inferences drawn from the use of test scores. If the IQ test is a valid and reliable test of innate ability or abilities, then the factors which emerge on a given test should be the same from one population to another, since intelligence is asserted to be a set of mental processes. (1989). 1. Put another way, there is always more within-group variability in performance on mental tests than between-group variability. Three cases involving intelligence testing of Black children related to special education placement went to trial: Larry P. v. Riles (343 F. Supp. many different connotations for the lay public and for professionals in a number of disciplines. Reynolds, C. R., & Ramsay, M. C. (2003). It provides a simpler method than either the ICC or IRT models, and it is readily accessible through major statistical programs. Although the concept of cultural bias in testing and assessment also pertains to score differences and potential misdiagnoses with respect to a broader range of psychological concepts, particularly in applied psychology and other social and behavioral sciences, this aspect of cultural bias has received less attention in the relevant literature . Learn all about assessment bias. Psychologists and educators will need to keep abreast of new findings in the area. When homogeneity of regression does not occur, three basic conditions can result: (1) Intercept constants differ, (2) regression coefficients (slopes) differ, or (3) slopes and intercepts differ. Psychological Record, 24, 1732. (1996). Jensen, A. R. (1976). The defining of bias in construct measurement, i.e., construct bias, then requires a general statement that can be researched from a variety of viewpoints with a broad range of methodology. Educational uses of tests with disadvantaged students. This chapter provides a discussion of multicultural issues in clinical psychological assessment. The CTBH represents the contention that any gender, ethnic, racial, or other nominally determined groups who perform differently on mental tests are due to inherent, artifactual biases produced within the tests through flawed psychometric methodology. Stereotype threat research then goes on to argue, as one example, that if one takes a test of mental ability, but the examinee is told it is not for evaluating the test taker, but to examine the test itself and no racial identifier is requested, then racial group differences in performance on the test will disappear. Standardized tests intend to measure intelligence and general knowledge, but they are normed based on the knowledge and values of the majority groups, which can create bias against minority groups, The first two sections discuss best practicerelated issues in assessment in relation to (1) clinical diagnosis and (2) psychological testing and assessment. Each of these cases involved allegations of bias in IQ tests that caused the underestimation of the intelligence of Black children and subsequently led to disproportionate placement of Black children in special education programs. The differences have persisted at relatively constant levels for quite some time and under a variety of methods of investigation. Research has shown that although there are no significant sex differences in overall intelligence scores, substantial differences exist with regard to specific cognitive abilities. So, we search for reasons for why these differences are not true. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 12, 4758. Suzuki, L. A., & Valencia, R. R. (1997). Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, R. (1979). Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). With regression coefficient differences, then, the higher the score on the predictor variable, the greater the error of prediction for the criterion. To save content items to your account, Such interpretations understandably call for an emotional response and are not defensible from a scientific perspective. Many different achievement tests and teacher-made, classroom-specific tests need to be employed in future studies of predictive bias. Cultural loading refers to the degree of cultural specificity present in the test or individual items of the test. Danger: Testing and dehumanizing Black children. IRT is concerned fundamentally with creating a mathematical model of item difficulty or more technically, the probability of occurrence of a particular response to a test item as a function of an examinees relative position on a latent trait. Bias in psychological assessment: An empirical review and recommendations. Many studies now demonstrate this stereotype effect, but some incorporate controversial statistical procedures that might confound the results by equating the two groups (i.e., erasing the group differences) on the basis of variables irrelevant to the effect of the stereotype threat. Understanding Cultural Bias: 3 Examples of Cultural Bias New York, NY: Plenum Press. Todays most recommended Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Bias in psychological assessment: An empirical review and recommendations. As the discipline of psy-chology has expanded, the application of psychological assessment has also developed in response to new areas of practice. Reynolds, C. R. (1982). ) in the prediction of college performance (typically measured by grade point average). This will not be an easy task because of the controversial nature of the topic and its strong emotional overtones. Reynolds, C. R. (1980). Perhaps this is the case, but with specific regard to race and ethnic differences on measures of IQ, aptitude, and achievement, a broader explanationand one that captures the biases of psychologistsseems required. Although the search for common biased item characteristics will continue, cultural bias in aptitude tests has found no consistent empirical support in a large number of actuarial studies contrasting the performance of a variety of ethnic and gender groups on items of the most widely employed intelligence scales in the United States. How can. is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings Since the early 1900s, near the time of Binet's first offering, intelligence tests have been scrutinized for cultural biases in a variety of forms. Sex differences in intelligence: Implications for education. He prohibited (or enjoined) the use of IQ tests with Black children in the California public schools. The exceptional minority child: Issues and some answers. The committee report (Cleary, Humphreys, Kendrick, & Wesman, 1975) was subsequently published in the official journal of the APA, American Psychologist. Differential validity of employment tests by race: A comprehensive review and analysis. The entire area of differential validity of tests in the affective domain is in need of greater exploration. The problem of bias in psychological assessment. Types of Test Bias Researchers have identified. As far as the present situation is concerned, clearly all the evidence is not in. These methods include the correlation of raw scores with age, comparison of item-total correlations across groups, comparisons of alternate form and test-retest correlations, evaluation of kinship correlation and differences, and others (see Reynolds, 2002, for a discussion of these methods). Special Interest Topic 15.3 summarizes the discussion of fairness in testing and test use from the Standards (AERA et al., 2014). In an impressive review of 866 Black-White prediction comparisons from 39 studies of test bias in personnel selection, Hunter, Schmidt, and Hunter (1979) concluded that there was no evidence to substantiate hypotheses of differential or single-group validity with regard to the prediction of the job performance across race for Blacks and Whites. A. Naglieri, & I. Reynolds, C., Willson, V., & Chatman, S. (1984). American Psychologist, 52, 10911102 A good article that summarizes the literature on sex differences with an emphasis on educational implications. With simple regressions, predictions take the form Y=aX+b where a is the constant and b is the regression coefficient. Total loading time: 0
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